The Habit Of Identity :: essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites In a famous experiment, students were asked to take a lemon home and to get used to it. Three days later, they were able to single out â€Å"their† lemon from a pile of rather similar ones. They seemed to have bonded. Is this the true meaning of love, bonding, coupling? Do we simply get used to other human beings, pets, or objects? Habit forming in humans is reflexive. We change ourselves and our environment in order to attain maximum comfort and well being. It is the effort that goes into these adaptive processes that forms a habit. The habit is intended to prevent us from constant experimenting and risk taking. The greater our well being, the better we function and the longer we survive. Actually, when we get used to something or to someone – we get used to ourselves. In the object of the habit we see a part of our history, all the time and effort that we put into it. It is an encapsulated version of our acts, intentions, emotions and reactions. It is a mirror reflecting back at us that part in us, which formed the habit. Hence, the feeling of comfort: we really feel comfortable with our own selves through the agency of the object of our habit. Because of this, we tend to confuse habits with identity. If asked WHO they are, most people will resort to describing their habits. They will relate to their work, their loved ones, their pets, their hobbies, or their material possessions. Yet, all of these cannot constitute part of an identity because their removal does not change the identity that we are seeking to establish when we enquire WHO someone is. They are habits and they make the respondent comfortable and relaxed. But they are not part of his identity in the truest, deepest sense. Still, it is this simple mechanism of deception that binds people together. A mother feels that her off spring are part of her identity because she is so used to them that her well being depends on their existence and availability. Thus, any threat to her children is interpreted to mean a threat on her Self. Her reaction is, therefore, strong and enduring and can be recurrently elicited. The truth, of course, is that her children ARE a part of her identity in a superficial manner.

Punctuality and Time Essay

Punctuality is being on time or completing something on time. The main thing is time management. Time management is exercising control over the amount of time spent on activities or it is used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks or goals. With this u can break time management it to categories like Time discipline adding a time limit and the Value of time. Time discipline is the act of planning out time to do something and then sticking to the time u have set to do it or someone else has set for u to do and complete it in that set time. Time discipline can also be using your time wisely and not waiting till the last moment to do it. But allotting time and doing it in that time so you’re not rushed and so u make fewer mistakes on it or no mistakes. Using your time in a manner where u have the time need to finish the task and either turn it in or come back and relay that the task is done to whoever gave u that task that u had just finished. Setting a time limit a time limit or deadline is a narrow field of time, or particular point in time, by which an objective or task must be accomplished. In project management, deadlines are most often associated with easily obtained goals. Setting a time limit and keeping it is a need tool everyone needs to work and function in every day society. Because if u don’t u won’t be able to hold and keep a job because how can your boss count on you to do and get done with what he/she needs for you to do but I kind of got of topic. Punctuality is the habit of doing things exactly in time. A punctual person will be a winner everywhere. A punctual person is always one step ahead of others. Often we say plan work and work plan. But if you are not stick on your work promptly, punctually, how can you become a better person I your life? Punctuality is essential for man in every walk of life. For students it is a great blessing. If you are punctual you will get enough time to do your work according to your plan. In hospitals, punctuality can make all the difference, of course between life and death. You never face any difficulty so far as time is concerned. You command respect and admiration of all who work with you and are an asset. Everybody likes to work with you such a lovely man. On the contrary an unpunctual man sees himself in arrears as days pass and is gradually filled with despair. He generally causes inconvenience to others and is most of the time a liability. Punctuality is inevitable everywhere. In business also this is very important. If you want to be a successful businessman, you have to be very particular in being punctual. The failure to keep up an engagement punctually may mean a setback for his business. If you are not punctual, you can see your washes away between your cup and lip! If we study the lives of our great men, we find that punctuality was one of the secrets of their success in life. The necessity of doing our work punctually should be felt more keenly because we live today in a complicated society where each work is dependent on the other. The smooth working of the modern world is due to an increasing recognition of the necessity of doing our work punctually. Punctuality being so important in life, it is necessary for every man to cultivate this habit from the very beginning. Once we are punctual, our labours will be lightened, our mind disciplined and our life will be much easier and brighter. so I guess what I’m saying is if we be punctual, we can finish up our work at right time. Punctuality checks unnecessary wastage of time. Time is very valuable for us. We can save it only by punctuality. Time and tide wait for none. Seconds, minutes, hours and days pass by in right order. There is a maxim â€Å"We should hold the time by the forelock†. If we be punctual, a single second of us will never go waste. The English men are very punctual. They put on wrist-watches to exercise punctuality. But we, the Indian put on wrist-watches only as ornaments for show. We cannot progress. If we are not punctual. Punctuality helps us in our progress. It also saves money in other ways. There is a saying. â€Å"A stitch in time saves nine†. So, if we take our food punctually, we will never be sick and so we will never have to spend money on medicines and doctors or to worry our near and dear ones in this connection. Everybody should be punctual in his everyday life. Every one should make a habit of punctuality. The people who have become great in their lives are very punctual. Punctuality is the first condition for becoming great in life. So, punctuality should be the motto in our life. We should not only be punctual ourselves but also advise others to be punctual. But when it comes to the military, certain things are just automatically expected of a person. One of the most important expectations is time management and being on time. Every day there are any number of places one is required to be at a certain time and as the saying goes if you aren’t fifteen minutes early then you are late. One may ask, why fifteen minutes though it may seem Extreme, when dealing with the numbers of people that are dealt with in the armed forces, allowances must be made for the unexpected. There will always be unexpected complications to arise; it is just part of life that is why you can’t simply try to be on time because what happens when something does come up? There is no cushion of time for you to adjust however needed to take care of whatever came up. Just one person being late can begin a chain of events to be set back and throw any number of people’s days off schedule. Say you have an appointment for an eye exam and you are five minutes late. Well that is five minutes that the eye doctor had to wait on one person instead of moving on. The person who’s appointment is after yours is then forced to wait five minutes past when his or her appointment was supposed to begin which could in turn make that person five minutes late to pick up his or her child from school. One person can make that much of a splash just by being late, which is why the military is expected to the punctual. Honor is defined as honesty, fairness, or integrity in ones beliefs and actions. When it comes to being on time one should have the sense to be fair to his or her shipmates not being late and wasting their time. A person being frequently late shows that that person does not respect his or her fellows enough to not keep them waiting on a regular basis.

An Athlete s Worst Nightmare Essay - 1465 Words

An Athlete’s Worst Nightmare Imagine you are going along playing the sport you love, when all of a sudden you hear a pop, your knee gives out, and you are on the ground in pain. This is what happened to me not once, but twice. After going to the doctor both times, they figured out I tore my ACL. The ACL is like a rubber band that holds your knee together enabling you to bend, jump, cut, and run. Without it, your knee could give out at any given time. The first time I experienced it, I was playing soccer in P.E. The second time I was playing volleyball. I had to have knee reconstruction surgery after both. The second time I had the reconstruction surgery plus fixing my meniscus. Tearing an ACL is a very vigorous process. Following surgery, I had to endure 6-8 strenuous months of physical therapy followed by athletic training, which is just another therapy but aimed to get you back to sports. Tearing my ACL has affected me positively and negatively by changing my athletic career, my school year, and my character. There were not any clear causes to tearing my ACL. There could have been very many causes. The first time while playing soccer, I was going to kick the soccer ball on a quick decision. I kicked with my knee bent in. I learned a lot about proper form when playing sports. One of the most important one is that you need to have your knees out. Your ACL is safest when your knee is bent. Another factor that could have caused my ACL tear is that IShow MoreRelatedThe Violence Of Football And Football1713 Words   |  7 Pagesbigger in the U.S.. More concern is raised about football. Football could be considered one of the most violent sports along with rugby and hockey. As more National Football League players are coming forward with mental illnesses such as alzheimer s post concussion syndrome and more linked to football more fear of concussions has been raised. 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Illegal Immigration from Mexico - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2544 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/02/20 Category Sociology Essay Level High school Tags: Illegal Immigration Essay Did you like this example? When Mexico sends its people, they’re not sending their best. They’re not sending you. They’re not sending you. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Illegal Immigration from Mexico" essay for you Create order They’re sending people that have lots of problems, and they’re bringing those problems with us. They’re bringing drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists. And some, I assume, are good people.† This quote is from current President Donald Trump’s announcement for his presidency on June 16, 2015. Illegal immigration is a heated debate within U.S. politics and political parties. During this current political administration, this discussion has escalated from a rational debate to attacks upon opposing views and illegal immigrants. As individuals have argued over how the U.S. should address illegal immigration inconsiderate and unfair terminology has been repeatedly used to address all illegal immigrants. Some political figures immorally assume all undocumented immigrants as â€Å"job stealers†, â€Å"criminals†, and â€Å"rapists† without considering the facts about illegal immigration. While illegal immigrants have made a small minority of low-class native workers poorer, illegal immigration isn’t entirely negative as the politicians portray it. The truth is that illegal immigrants have improved the economy, are being denied forms of citizenship even though most are fleeing violent countries, and the country founded on immigrants is flatly denying a chance for those to achieve better lives. So why can’t we change our policies? Is it stubbornness or the belief of false truths? As a young citizen, I currently have little power to change the argument for creating better systems for illegal immigration, but you do. According to the New York Times, illegal immigrants â€Å"account for 5 percent of the total U.S. labor force, and at least a quarter of t he workers in industries like construction, agriculture, groundskeeping, meat processing, and textile production.(Where the Undocumented Work, 2014). If the U.S. were to follow the current administrations idea of deporting all illegal immigrants our economy would collapse due to our reliance on these immigrants filling the low class, blue collar jobs. In a study done in 2006 completed by the Texas State Comptroller, it was predicted that â€Å"The 1.4 million undocumented immigrants in Texas alone added almost $18 billion to the states economic output, and more than paid for the $1.2 billion in state services they used by generating $1.6 billion in new state revenues.(Where the Undocumented Work, 2014). Under these circumstances, if undocumented immigrants within Texas alone contributed to the economy in such a positive way, imagine if these results were found across America if our borders were open. Not only would it make America wealthier, but by allowing a steady influx of legal immigrants additional assistance could be provided to the native population by producing more taxpayers (Borjas). By creating immigration policies that better match the circumstances of immigration, not only does the U.S. economy benefit as a whole, but so do more local governments and the native population. Yet another economic professor named Giovan ni Peri who works at the University of California states similar conclusion that states with a higher population of undocumented immigrants â€Å"skilled workers made more money and worked more hours; the economy’s productivity grew.†(Adam Davidson). So why are we not looking towards making better and more sufficient immigration policies that would better benefit our economy? For while politicians may portray undocumented immigrants as our enemy, using provocative language to evoke emotion steering individuals away from the fact that undocumented immigrants help native citizens financially. Undocumented immigrants also contributed to the pay of legal workers from 1990 to 2007 where â€Å"undocumented immigrants increased legal workers’ pay in complementary jobs by up to 10 percent.†(Adam Davidson). Allowing more undocumented immigrants would kill two birds with one stone; where there prospect of helping legal citizens financially and help immigrants obtain better lives. To continue, illegal immigration acts as a way to spread and redistribute wealth. According to George J. Borjas a professor of economics and social policy at Harvard â€Å"Immigration redistributes wealth from those who compete with immigrants to th ose who use immigrants—from the employee to the employer. And the additional profits are so large that the economic pie accruing to all natives actually grows.†(George J. Borjas). The benefits of undocumented immigrants upon the economy are significant but by allowing them to obtain legal status, their contributions would increase. For according to a New York Times article â€Å"Workers who are not part of an underground economy and dont live in fear of deportation are better able to acquire new job skills and move up the career ladder. That translates into higher wages, more money paid in taxes, and more money to spend.†(Walter Ewing and Mark Krikorian). Currently, within the political debate on immigration policies, the presidential administration has unrealistic ideas to deport all immigrants, which according to Gordon H. Hanson a professor a the University of California â€Å"stemming illegal immigration would likely lead to a net drain on the U.S. economy—a finding that calls into question many of the proposals to increase funding for border protection.(The Economic Logic of Illegal Immigration). Additionally, our government is looking past what illegal immigration contributes to the U.S. economy and ignores that the main reason behind why most individuals come to the U.S. illegally. Which is to not steal our jobs, take advantage of our healthcare, to be drug dealers and criminals, but they are searching for better economic and socials opportunities. The statue of liberty is one of the most iconic symbols of America. Hence, as time has passed since the statue first arrived, American views have changed of her representation. Most believe she stands for our liberty and freedom, but this barely shines a light on what she truly represents. The poem â€Å"The New Colossus† written by Emma Lazarus on November 2, 1883, is inscribed upon the statue and gives human light upon famous, copper woman where she says â€Å"With silent lips. Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!(The New Colossus). Many forget that she stands as a welcome to immigrants onto American soil. In contradiction to what America once stood for as a place of refuge for immigrants seeking better opportunities, we have in current times closed our doors to illegal immigrants seeking similar opportunitie s. Is it ethically right for the country founded upon immigrants to turn our backs to undocumented immigrants seeking refuge as our forefathers once did? For it was through illegal immigration that the United States of America would begin. Perhaps many Americans view illegal immigration in such a negative connotation is because many current government officials paint a world where all illegal immigrants are criminals looking to take advantage of â€Å"natives† and aliens. To portray such a group as individuals without human characteristics is unfair and cruel. For most of those â€Å"aliens† Immigrating to the United States are searching for better, more safe, and healthy opportunities for themselves and their families. Arent those the same reasons our ancestors who came to America? Our constitution does include differentiation of legal and illegal citizens but is also includes that all people, legal or illegal, should be given equal processes and treatment under the law(Victor C. Romero). Has America resorted to racial stereotypes and unsupported assumptions? Before one can say no, think about how we refer to undocumented immigrants as â€Å"aliens† as though their going to invade our country and take over. How criminality is commonly related to discussions of immigration. Where we have ignored the legitimate values of those wishing to obtain and vilified those who are not legal citizens. Under the Trump Administration, the press for the eradication of illegal immigration has increased. To meet these ends, drastic decisions have been made to bar, separate families, and not provide secure legal refuge for the undocumented. Isn’t it immoral to block these individuals when most are fleeing for countries of civil war, gang violence, and economic issues? According to your speech given on December 15, 2017, you quoted when speaking about DACA and illegal immigration â€Å"First, you’re going to encourage parents from around the world who live in poverty and oppression and war to illegally immigrate to our country with small children. What could be more dangerous and even immoral than that?†(Cotton Calls Democrats Bluff on Immigration on Senate Floor). This lense of viewing why many immigrants travel to the United States is in human and inconsiderate. Considering that the places these people are escaping from are in such bad conditions that the small chance that they could make a better life for their children and family in the United States is worth t he risk. According to The Atlantic many â€Å"Families arriving at the border from countries like Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala leave behind a myriad of stories, many of them connected to their homelands’ plague of armed violence.(Martà ­nez). Many are fleeing from gangs, sexual violence, poverty, and there is no party in those countries that are handling the problems well. As the land of opportunity shouldn’t we make better policies to help the less unfortunate, much like the soils of America once did to our ancestors? Currently, our policies for immigrants applying for visas and asylum are hard to obtain and can take a numerous amount of years. Additionally according to the Washington post this presidential administration â€Å"has embraced even tougher measures: â€Å"zero tolerance† for those arriving illegally, by requiring criminal prosecutions; family separation, a policy from which Mr. Trump was forced to retreat after images of children wailing for their parents provoked a public outcry; and eliminating domestic violence and gang violence as grounds for granting asylum to migrants who arrived at legal crossing points.(Nicholas Kulish). For those individuals suffering from violent countries and with granted asylum through domestic and gang violence being taken away from this current administration, it makes sense why the risks to travel to the united states are worth it. If you were in such a situation, wouldn’t you as well? In a speech in 2017 you mentioned and I quote â€Å"Shouldnt we have an immigration system that focuses on the needs of Americas workers and economy, not one that gives out green c ards by random chance, the way we have today? Shouldnt we be focused on the jobs and the wages of American citizens?†(Cotton Calls Democrats? Bluff on Immigration on Senate Floor). Heres the thing, while illegal immigration does lower the wages of some natives who are in competing jobs alongside immigrants, this is only a small minority of Americans. Undocumented immigrants working in industries such as Agriculture, Grounds Maintenance, Food Preparation and Serving, Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Workers, Cooks, Construction Trade Workers, Helpers, Construction Trades, Building Cleaning, Pest Control, and Food Processing(Where the Undocumented Work). According to the 1A podcast from the National Public Radio or NPR â€Å"High costs of living and a lack of interest in pursuing blue-collar careers are affecting the labor market across the nation.†(Why Some States Are Experiencing A Labor Shortage). Meaning, that the areas that you have mentioned that are affecting American’s wages and jobs are not currently being filled. Illegal immigration provides cheap labor to areas that are currently lacking. Also considering the fact that if the guest worker and citizenship programs were designed to work the the benifit of the United States economy, it would prevent the lowering of wages, create more money from tax payments, and fundamentally more money to spend(Walter Ewing and Mark Krikorian). So wouldn’t changing policies to make these immigrants path to citizenship easier more benefit Americans? By preventing lowered wages, supporting natives through tax payments, and raising the economy of America. Isn’t that better than wasting the money of American taxpayers trying to eradicate a nearly impossible influx of immigrants? Viewing the idea of making legal citizenship a more straightforward process for those suffering from violence as immoral for risking the lives of their family and themselves is misguided. Isn’t it our imperative to help those in suffering achieve a better opportunity? Isn’t it immoral that the United States is making it nearly impossible to achieve citizenship for those who are facing poverty, war, domestic and gang violence? Those who are coming here understand the consequences and dangers there are, but they have no better option. You have mentioned â€Å"We often hear that children ought not to pay for the crimes of their parents. That may be so, but surely parents can pay for the crimes of the parents.†(Cotton Calls Democrats? Bluff on Immigration on Senate Floor). If one is to think that way of punishing those who have caused t he influx of illegal immigration, isn’t the U.S. one who should suffer the consequences of our actions? For many of U.S. foreign interventions are a large part in the causation of the violence, civil wars, dictatorships, and criminal activity in many areas in Latin America, which has forced many Latin Americans to travel illegally to the U.S.(Amanda Machado). In a time where each political party is currently acting as a group of three-year-olds, fighting over a toy; there are not mature and beneficial conversations being had to discuss global issues, like illegal immigration. There are solutions to our issues with immigration. By creating more straightforward laws for individuals wishing to get citizenship, green cards, guest worker permits, or asylum the United States could help those who are suffering and mend the broken relationships we have made with these countries that we once caused issues in. For the worry of lowered wages, if policies were introduced that would somehow tax companies benefiting from low-skilled immigrants and through this taxation help the native population suffering from these wage cuts(â€Å"Yes, Immigration Hurts American Workers†). For shouldn’t policies try to benefit American’s and the U.S. economy? For currently illegal immigration is very beneficial to America and this would increase i f more of these immigrants were here legally. With such benefits as low-cost labor to money that supports the native population. Unfortunately as a high school student and youth of America, I don’t have as much power to create change. I may be able to start a conversation but not execute an over vision. But that is where you as an influential Senator can start the open conversation. While we may not agree upon illegal immigration you have the power and the duty to start a better world for the youth going to inherit this world. And shouldn’t we make a more diverse and open world for those to inherit it? I would like to take the time that is necessary to thank you for kindly reading my letter and taking your time to address my issue of conversation. For not only the future of the United States and these individuals who are looking for a better life I hope that you can start a mature conversation leading to more straightforward policies for immigrants to obtain some form of legal citizenship. In the future, I do hope to hear from you to further create a healthy debate. Once again thank you so much f or your time.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) - 1898 Words

â€Å"†¦It is the soldier who must suffer and bear the deepest wounds and scars of war.† These words, said by the American General Douglas MacArthur, ring with a sad truth. Many people suffer in war, but possibly none more so than those who fight in it. Soldiers are faced with waking nightmares on the battlefield: constant threat of death, pain, and loss hang heavy over their heads, and they are often the first to bear witness to the horror and inhumanity of war. It is unfortunate, but unsurprising, that soldiers quite often come away from active duty mentally scarred due to their experiences on the front. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a severe anxiety disorder that develops in response to exposure to trauma, poses a serious concern†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Hollow Men† also has a heavy usage of refrain, used to emphasize ideas or themes, and descriptive language, to create imagery. Overall, it has a somber sort of tone, created by Eliotâ₠¬â„¢s use of words with a typically sad or negative connotation. The first section in the poem begins with the lines â€Å"We are the hollow men/We are the stuffed men† (Section 1, Lines 1-2), where the title of the poem is first dropped. The lines seem to contradict each other at first, but â€Å"hollow† can be taken to mean emotionally empty. â€Å"Stuffed† can be interpreted as being stuffed with straw, which is confirmed by the line Headpiece filled with straw. These lines add to the image that Eliot creates in the first stanza of a scarecrow (or something similar). This, in addition the poem’s epigram, A penny for the Old Guy, is an allusion to Guy Fawkes, an infamous historical figure associated with the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605- traditionally, a straw effigy of Fawkes is burned on a bonfire each year on the fifth of November. The stanza is the first example of Eliot’s usage of descriptive language in his poetry, as well as an extended m etaphor, comparing the speaker’s group to these straw effigies. It also contains a small amount of personification in the lines â€Å"We whisper together/.../As wind in dry grass.† The second stanza consists of four paradoxes: â€Å"Shape without

Katy Perry One of the Boys and Tomb Raider Under World texts Analysis Free Essays

I will be analysing two different texts, â€Å"Katy Perry – One of the Boys† and â€Å"Tomb Raider – Under World†. I will consider three different things; Visual codes, mode of address language and layout design. Firstly I will be looking at â€Å"Katy Perry – One of the Boys†. We will write a custom essay sample on Katy Perry One of the Boys and Tomb Raider Under World texts Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Katy Perry releases mostly pop music, she is also known widely around the world. The scenery in this text is a complete juxtaposition against the title ‘One of the Boys’, there is a lot of feminine colour, the stand out one being candy pink. Stereotypically boys are not associated with such feminine colours. This shows the text to be unconventional. Also unconventional could be seen in the fact that Katy Perry is the dominant figure in this picture, this is very unusual when an extreme long shot is used. When using the word pop artist usually the words perfection come to mind, however the text suggest imperfection, this could be seen with use of the cloud its covering the beautiful clear blue sky. This could be linked back to the title â€Å"one of the Boys† suggesting boys are allowed to show imperfection and this can hint towards the direction of the lyrics in this song. Katy Perry also draws further attention to herself by looking directly at the camera, she is addressing the audience directly. The fact they haven’t used a real bird, suggest the need to look perfect in the pop industry and enhance the fake side and the fact everything is put together and has its place. Secondly I will be annotating â€Å"Tomb Raider – Under World†. Tomb Raider is generally based around a female in very revealing clothing completing very daring mission. The scenery of the text consists of different shades of green and yellow. The Yellow shades look similar to the colour that is create when the is a massive explosion and the models pose looks very unshaken, this can show her to have a very high shock level. The green shades are typical camouflage colours which are usually associated with the army, this can suggest that the game consist of violence and unexpected action. However the game has a user’s age of 12+. This tells the audience that the game won’t consist of extreme violence, because a 12 year is able to play it. This devalues what the game looks like it is all about, violence. This can demotivate older audience member such as 18 year olds from buying the game. There is some sex appeal from the costume she is wearing. The models eyes are cut out of the picture which suggests secrecy. This can also enhance the sex appeal of the cover, a mysterious woman. This game can be played on the Wii console which is generally advertised as a family console, this is very far from their usual games they choose to release I have analysed both text and in conclusion, â€Å"Katy Perry – One of the Boys† is unconventional, this is shown through the scenery and camera angles. It also suggests imperfection through the scenery and use of text. This text is goes against the normal. This is probably to engage the audience. â€Å"Tomb Raider – Under World† sends out mixed signals because of the age that is allowed to play this game and the violence that is suggested is in this game because of props and scenery. Also the fact it is playable on the Wii console would usually mean it is a family game. Both texts are unusual in different ways, but this in fact makes them stand out more. How to cite Katy Perry One of the Boys and Tomb Raider Under World texts Analysis, Papers

Rational Action Theory

Question: Discuss about the Rational Action Theory. Answer: Introduction Rational Action Theory is an approach used by social scientists to understand human behavior. Sociological Writings of Rational Action Theory is discussed by Max Weber, Durkheim, and Simmel among others. Rational action means having a choice among alternative courses of action. An individual chooses the best action considering their preference and their belief. The theory is taken to be both individualistic and psychological as individuals make decisions and actions based on their mental choices. The theory argues that actions of a rational individual can be conceived in the form of statement and its social processes and phenomena explained. Rational theory is considered to have evolved from the social theory which both are agents of social change. To Max Weber, sociology was a science of social action and primary, focused on how human actors attach their actions in their mutual orientation. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a summary of rational action theory as discussed by Max Weber. Weber approach to rational theory focused on individualism and social evolution in his methodological writings. The purposive rational action was the center of his theory with an assumption of the means as the cause of action and the aggravated consequences as the ends. Looking at the individualism weber paradigms looked at two aspects including social collectives like the state that constructed and reconstructed and non-collective laws. Therefore sociologist must recognize the existence of individual behavior laws in the rationalization of choices and actions. The rationalization for Weber makes the progressive modern society with goal-oriented actions (Nowak, 2012). He looked at the kind of rational actions individuals made and saw that human agency can perceive clear goals with a calculation of the means and the end. Stressing at the reason for action, Weber argued that despite an actor making a rational choice, their choices are also affected by their conscious belief of values s uch ass religious, ethical and norms. Therefore an individual would practice pure value rational orientation when their convictions have an importance cause to them. Human agency basically, is seen to take actions and therefore chooses to act. Individuals daily social actions according to Weber, always look into account the social and behavior of other individuals. With individuals being social beings, they are not independent and more often than not are they acted interdependently and sought the opinions of others. Therefore individuals take actions whereas the social actions are optimally chosen and this influences their preferences making them focus on their goals. In rational action theory, social interaction often offers social exchange and actors are motivated by rewards and punishments from the actions they take. Since individuals have their interests and the means by which they achieve their goals, the theory make assumptions about actions taken by an individual end up affecting social groupings and systems. Individuals decisions actions and attitudes affect the social setting, the mind of individuals also, causes the need to take actions as such actions are seen to be taken optimally. Here, individuals acts in their best interests that serve them despite their lack of proper information, resources or preferences to be considered. Optimality, therefore, is one of the main assumptions of RAT (Buskens, Raub, 2013). Of utmost importance is the optimum social part of the theory which shows the aptitude of analysis of social arrangement. According to Weber, structures and norms dictate a single course of action and they part of the RAT. Meaning that a situation may be faced by a different multiple of choices whereas a different action may provide only one choice to be made. In my opinion, RAT cr eates a classical way that explains the differences in individuals choices and how they emerge, but different theorists take into account different levels of optimality in actors which include, individual utilitarian and imposed optimality. Moreover, Weber argues that RAT is assumed to have little in the application of sociology. That is all the assumptions that are made hold enough knowledge and nothing important is left out. The theory has been used in explaining various phenomena such as marriage, group formation discriminations, and interactions. Weber argued that there are different types of actions including inter independent action that are two types, parametric social action, and strategic social actions, and dependent actions though he saw that dependent actions are rarely applicable in sociology (Buskens, Raub, 2013). To him, the parametric social action is independent of actors action and as such the actor does not have to calculate the actions of others as a consequence of what they do in anticipation of what they may do. On the other hand, social action has to put into consideration the actions of others in deciding what to do. Therefore the actions of any individual are interdependent with those of others . Weber also identified the informal and formal rationalization where he saw bureaucratic domination as formal rational since it was action oriented with an intellectual rationalization of the social or general rules and the adequate means through which these rules have to be implemented. Weber faced a lot of critics in his work as most of the rational theorists saw bureaucracy as a domination aiming to suppress the society. Also, the theory is criticized for having collective actions of social structure and social norms, and therefore the theory needs to dig deeper in his areas. Collective actions hold problems in explaining cooperation among individuals in associations, joint actions, and groups. Also in cases like the inter-dependent actions, one can pose questions to the theory, for instance, why should one consider others actions while making their choices? Social norms also pose related questions of why individuals accept and follow norms of behavior. Moreover, individualism in R AT does not explain or take into account the existence of larger structures in the society (Bouvier, 2007). The theory, also, argues that individuals make their choices and the means towards achieving the goals. Related questions that may arise therefore are why do individuals feel a sense of obligation or act in humane ways? Why should they feel that is, that they should obey the norms? Why are individuals socialized in value commitment ways and act rationally about the values and not at an individual level? Following this, the theory also has a weakness in that it ignores the formal and informal levels of mediation cases of conflicts between individuals during interactions and in the consequences of the actions they chose. Application In the contemporary society, rational action theory has been a great influence in the area of sociology. Religion has been one of this areas where modern rational thinking and acquaintance to alternative religious views and various religious beliefs .for example in United State religious pluralism has increased the demand for religion freedom. Another example is applied under individualism. Here individuals intuitions, desires and motivations are influenced by their rational actions. Individuals try through formation of social groupings in the modern world to promote better interpretation of their actions the means to use in order to get their ends. Weber also classified rational acts into two purpose rational act which aims at goal attainment and value-rational act which is determined by belief in self-value, unconditional ethical and appealing acts. In my opinion, this separate rationality get intertwined in the modern sociological world. Today, individuals are more focused on wha t adds value to them in consequence of their actions. The theory therefore highly focuses on purposive rational act as it looks at the logical structure of decision making. Norms which Weber looks at his hypothesis shows how bureaucracy in different social institutions have created norms from the principle of purpose-rationality. Moreover, the society today constitutes of different organizations which are influenced by human behavior and choices. The levels of intervention between individuals and state are different and more often they exert an influence in obeying norms. Individuals look for groups that they can identify themselves with. Everyone is attached to different groups from culture to culture and groups to groups. For instance, in this country, youths tend to leave their families at a very tender age and adjust to behavior patterns offered by other agents of socialization like he churches and schools (Strydom, 2007). The groups that they join influence the choices they make and the actions in which they use to achieve their set goals. The theory has also been used as a social theory in measuring the efficiency of public administration. Here the regulations that have been set by an organization are measured through the analyzing their theoretical and empirical aspects. Under this individuals through the social structure are the resources and their inclusion through their choices are put into consideration. Therefore the circumstance that have been laid out today by institutions in law enforcement measure efficiency of public administration through RAT. Under social interactions individuals are highly seeking approval from their counter parts and through status acquisition. As a weakness to the theory, one cannot measure the quantity and the value of social approval. On the other hand rational theorists do not see this as a challenge as today social approval and status can be measured as an intangible satisfaction that individuals achieve from interactions with other individuals. Rational Action theory describes how punishment and reward motivates individual to behave accordingly and thus inducing conditions of human behavior. Thus, through the society has set the appropriate behavior which individuals are bound to follow or otherwise they face punishment (Strydom, 2007). Continually, rational action theory incorporates the collective action aspect which has also been applied in the modern society. Actions of groups or organizations often are reduced to statements of actions by individuals. Such include parties, unions and organizat ions whose stakeholders are actors in the rational action theories. The groups speak as collective actors with the decision-making process resulting from individual members and their intentions gathered and agreed upon policy is formulated. Such are the happenings of most of the established organizations and groups. In conclusion, rational action theory adopts an individualist position in understanding human behavior and the rationality of the choices they make. It views social interactions as social exchange whereby individuals actions are influences by the social structures and the social norms. As such individual choices and actions are rare as human beings are social beings. Max Weber work in explaining the rotational theory is quite articulate though other rational theorists have criticized his work. References Abell, P. (2007). Narratives, Bayesian narratives and narrative actions. Sociologica, 1(3), 0-0. Bouvier, A. (2007). An argumentativist point of view in cognitive sociology. European Journal of Social Theory, 10(3), 465-480. Buskens, V., Raub, W. (2013). Rational choice research on social dilemmas: embeddedness effects on trust. Handbook of rational choice social research, 113-150. Crossley, N. (2010). Towards relational sociology. Routledge. DE INTERDEPENDENCIA, R. Y. M. (2009). Networks And Mechanisms Of Interdependence Theoretical Developments beyond the Rational Action Model. Glaesser, J., Cooper, B. (2014). Using rational action theory and Bourdieus habitus theory together to account for educational decision-making in England and Germany. Sociology, 48(3), 463-481. Goldthorpe, J. H. (2007). On sociology (Vol. 2). Stanford University Press. Macy, M. W. (2006). Rational choice. Contemporary social psychological theories, 70-87. Martindale, D. (2013). The nature and types of sociological theory (Vol. 11). Routledge. Manzo, G. (2007). Variables, mechanisms, and simulations: Can the three methods be synthesized?. Revue franaise de sociologie, 48(5), 35-71. Manzo, G. (2013). Is rational choice theory still a rational choice of theory? A response to Opp. Social Science Information, 52(3), 361-382. Martindale, D. (2013). The nature and types of sociological theory (Vol. 11). Routledge. Nowak, S. (2012). Understanding and Prediction: Essays in the Methodology of Social and Behavioural Theories (Vol. 94). Springer Science Business Media. Reed, I. (2008). Review Essay: Social Theory, Post-Post-Positivism and the Question of Interpretation. International Sociology, 23(5), 665-675. Strydom, P. (2007). Introduction: A cartography of contemporary cognitive social theory.